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Do you know what value will be alerted if the following is executed as a JavaScript program?

var foo = 1;
function bar() {
	if (!foo) {
		var foo = 10;
	}
	alert(foo);
}
bar();

If it surprises you that the answer is “10”, then this one will probably really throw you for a loop:

var a = 1;
function b() {
	a = 10;
	return;
	function a() {}
}
b();
alert(a);

Here, of course, the browser will alert “1”. So what’s going on here? While it might seem strange, dangerous, and confusing, this is actually a powerful and expressive feature of the language. I don’t know if there is a standard name for this specific behavior, but I’ve come to like the term “hoisting”. This article will try to shed some light on this mechanism, but first lets take a necessary detour to understand JavaScript’s scoping.

Scoping in JavaScript

One of the sources of most confusion for JavaScript beginners is scoping. Actually, it’s not just beginners. I’ve met a lot of experienced JavaScript programmers who don’t fully understand scoping. The reason scoping is so confusing in JavaScript is because it looks like a C-family language. Consider the following C program:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
	int x = 1;
	printf("%d, ", x); // 1
	if (1) {
		int x = 2;
		printf("%d, ", x); // 2
	}
	printf("%d\n", x); // 1
}

The output from this program will be 1, 2, 1. This is because C, and the rest of the C family, has block-level scope. When control enters a block, such as the if statement, new variables can be declared within that scope, without affecting the outer scope. This is not the case in JavaScript. Try the following in Firebug:

var x = 1;
console.log(x); // 1
if (true) {
	var x = 2;
	console.log(x); // 2
}
console.log(x); // 2

In this case, Firebug will show 1, 2, 2. This is because JavaScript has function-level scope. This is radically different from the C family. Blocks, such as if statements, do not create a new scope. Only functions create a new scope.

To a lot of programmers who are used to languages like C, C++, C#, or Java, this is unexpected and unwelcome. Luckily, because of the flexibility of JavaScript functions, there is a workaround. If you must create temporary scopes within a function, do the following:

function foo() {
	var x = 1;
	if (x) {
		(function () {
			var x = 2;
			// some other code
		}());
	}
	// x is still 1.
}

This method is actually quite flexible, and can be used anywhere you need a temporary scope, not just within block statements. However, I strongly recommend that you take the time to really understand and appreciate JavaScript scoping. It’s quite powerful, and one of my favorite features of the language. If you understand scoping, hoisting will make a lot more sense to you.

Declarations, Names, and Hoisting

In JavaScript, a name enters a scope in one of four basic ways:

1. Language-defined: All scopes are, by default, given the names this and arguments.
2. Formal parameters: Functions can have named formal parameters, which are scoped to the body of that function.
3. Function declarations: These are of the form function foo() {}.
4. Variable declarations: These take the form var foo;.

Function declarations and variable declarations are always moved (“hoisted”) invisibly to the top of their containing scope by the JavaScript interpreter. Function parameters and language-defined names are, obviously, already there. This means that code like this:

function foo() {
	bar();
	var x = 1;
}

is actually interpreted like this:

function foo() {
	var x;
	bar();
	x = 1;
}

It turns out that it doesn’t matter whether the line that contains the declaration would ever be executed. The following two functions are equivalent:

function foo() {
	if (false) {
		var x = 1;
	}
	return;
	var y = 1;
}
function foo() {
	var x, y;
	if (false) {
		x = 1;
	}
	return;
	y = 1;
}

Notice that the assignment portion of the declarations were not hoisted. Only the name is hoisted. This is not the case with function declarations, where the entire function body will be hoisted as well. But remember that there are two normal ways to declare functions. Consider the following JavaScript:

function test() {
	foo(); // TypeError "foo is not a function"
	bar(); // "this will run!"
	var foo = function () { // function expression assigned to local variable 'foo'
		alert("this won't run!");
	}
	function bar() { // function declaration, given the name 'bar'
		alert("this will run!");
	}
}
test();

In this case, only the function declaration has its body hoisted to the top. The name ‘foo’ is hoisted, but the body is left behind, to be assigned during execution.

That covers the basics of hoisting, which is not as complex or confusing as it seems. Of course, this being JavaScript, there is a little more complexity in certain special cases.

Name Resolution Order

The most important special case to keep in mind is name resolution order. Remember that there are four ways for names to enter a given scope. The order I listed them above is the order they are resolved in. In general, if a name has already been defined, it is never overridden by another property of the same name. This means that a function declaration takes priority over a variable declaration. This does not mean that an assignment to that name will not work, just that the declaration portion will be ignored. There are a few exceptions:

• The built-in name arguments behaves oddly. It seems to be declared following the formal parameters, but before function declarations. This means that a formal parameter with the name arguments will take precedence over the built-in, even if it is undefined. This is a bad feature. Don’t use the name arguments as a formal parameter.
• Trying to use the name this as an identifier anywhere will cause a SyntaxError. This is a good feature.
• If multiple formal parameters have the same name, the one occurring latest in the list will take precedence, even if it is undefined.

Named Function Expressions

You can give names to functions defined in function expressions, with syntax like a function declaration. This does not make it a function declaration, and the name is not brought into scope, nor is the body hoisted. Here’s some code to illustrate what I mean:

foo(); // TypeError "foo is not a function"
bar(); // valid
baz(); // TypeError "baz is not a function"
spam(); // ReferenceError "spam is not defined"

var foo = function () {}; // anonymous function expression ('foo' gets hoisted)
function bar() {}; // function declaration ('bar' and the function body get hoisted)
var baz = function spam() {}; // named function expression (only 'baz' gets hoisted)

foo(); // valid
bar(); // valid
baz(); // valid
spam(); // ReferenceError "spam is not defined"

How to Code With This Knowledge

Now that you understand scoping and hoisting, what does that mean for coding in JavaScript? The most important thing is to always declare your variables with a var statement. I strongly recommend that you have exactly one var statement per scope, and that it be at the top. If you force yourself to do this, you will never have hoisting-related confusion. However, doing this can make it hard to keep track of which variables have actually been declared in the current scope. I recommend using JSLint with the onevar option to enforce this. If you’ve done all of this, your code should look something like this:

/*jslint onevar: true [...] */
function foo(a, b, c) {
    var x = 1,
    	bar,
    	baz = "something";
}

What the Standard Says

I find that it’s often useful to just consult the ECMAScript Standard (pdf) directly to understand how these things work. Here’s what it has to say about variable declarations and scope (section 12.2.2 in the older version):

If the variable statement occurs inside a FunctionDeclaration, the variables are defined with function-local scope in that function, as described in section 10.1.3. Otherwise, they are defined with global scope (that is, they are created as members of the global object, as described in section 10.1.3) using property attributes { DontDelete }. Variables are created when the execution scope is entered. A Block does not define a new execution scope. Only Program and FunctionDeclaration produce a new scope. Variables are initialised to undefined when created. A variable with an Initialiser is assigned the value of its AssignmentExpression when the VariableStatement is executed, not when the variable is created.

I hope this article has shed some light on one of the most common sources of confusion to JavaScript programmers. I have tried to be as thorough as possible, to avoid creating more confusion. If I have made any mistakes or have large omissions, please let me know.